The United States and the Soviet Union in the Period 1944- 1950 Essay Example for Free

The United States and the Soviet Union in the Period 1944- 1950 Essay In 1944 the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, were allies in the war against National Socialist Germany and her Fascist Axis allies in Europe; however by 1950 the relationship had disintegrated to such an extent that the two countries had on more than one occasion nearly gone to war with each other. How had this situation arisen, and what were the implications not only for the two protagonists in what became known as the Cold War, but also for the rest of the world in this new Atomic Age. There was no definite date on which the erstwhile allies began to regard each other as potential adversaries and rivals for world influence. Neither, was their one definitive or underlying reason, for the difference of opinion between the erstwhile Second World War Allies. However, in the latter stages of the conflict and the years immediately following it would emerge a pattern of misunderstandings, miscalculations, misjudgements and suspicions which would come to characterise the following fifty years or so, in the relationship between the two countries and their respective allies. In order to assess the political realities of the situation pertaining at the time it is necessary to consider the geopolitical realities which existed, particular within Europe; and in addition to consider the internal political and economic situations in both countries in the time of victory over the Nazis, and the five years following that victory. Not, withstanding that there was also the Empire of Japan to be defeated particularly by Britain and America, although the Soviet Union would also have a part to play in that conflicts denouement. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was born as a result of the 1917 October Revolution, when the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov known as Lenin, Established the worlds first communist state by overthrowing the Provisional Government of Alexander Kerensky. There followed a Russian Civil War from which the Red Army formed by Leon Trotsky was eventually to secure a victory for Lenins Bolsheviks. Prior to this the emerging state faced enemies both internally and external, indeed Britain, France and the US all at one time gave support to the whites the enemies of the communists in the Russian Civil war. In 1923 Lenin died and a power struggle ensued to see who would succeed him. Joseph Jugashvili, better known as Joseph Stalin emerged as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. He set about mercilessly liquidating all opposition. Including his bitter rival Trotsky (who was murdered in exile in Mexico), his merciless repression reached a peak with show trials and executions of alleged counter revolutionaries. The number of people he was responsible for killing either directly or indirectly by failed economic policies etc. is unknown but must run into several millions. The form of communist state he created is commonly called Stalinist. Historians often point out Stalins purges of military officers as one of the main contributing factor in Hitlers early successes in the Soviet Union. The Nazi onslaught came about despite the Non-Aggression Pact signed between the 2 counties in 1940. Nonetheless, by 1944 Soviet troops were poised to begin the final defeat of the Third Reich, from the east. In 1944 a confident and vigorous United States, led by Franklin D. Roosevelt, was relishing the prospect of the liberation of Europe and also the much longed for defeat of Japan. The war, had by dint of the huge amount of government spending, revitalised the American economy and by the final stages of the war America was indisputably the worlds economic heavyweight. Roosevelt was indeed the only American president in history to be elected to four terms in office. He certainly carried the majority of the population along with him. Although, it must be stated that he also earned the undying enmity, of a large section of the American conservative right, who blamed Roosevelt for introducing socialist policies to America i.e. the policies introduced by the first Roosevelt administration, to institute economic recovery in the midst of the Great Depression (known as the New Deal), possibly one of the worst economic crisis that the capitalist economies had ever faced. In reality, the New Deal owed more to the economic policies of the British economist John Maynard Keynes than to those of Karl Marx. Nonetheless, to a section of American Society who imbibed the notion of classic liberal laissez faire economics with their mothers milk; Roosevelts ideas represented an unwholesome and unwelcome change of priorities, and the bitterness felt would not be easily dissipated. With the Japanese attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbor on the 7th December 1941, and Hitlers Declaration of war against America, the US the Second World War alongside the UK and the Soviet Union which, as previously stated, Hitlers Germany attacked in the summer of 1941 in Operation Barberossa. So right from the outset the alliance between the Soviet Union and the United States was more a marriage of convenience, than a love match. Historically, this alliance was something of an aberration, as the US did not even recognise the USSR, until 1933. However, it wasnt until victory looked certain, that the parties gave any serious thought to the shape of the post war world. In October 1944 the British Prime Minister held a meeting with Stalin in Moscow during the course of which, the post war shape of the Balkans and the contiguous regions was tacitally agreed; or perhaps, more accurately the areas of these regions where each power would have spheres of influence. This meeting was to prove hugely significant in the years to come: in particular as to the thinking of Joseph Stalin. As the end of National Socialism and Japanese militarism became inevitable during the course of 1944, the war aims of the victors became settled in the minds of the probable victors. It soon became apparent that both the USSR and the USA had different end games in mind, which as the international situation settled down in 1945, soon turned out not only to be different but also to a large extent mutually exclusive. These differences became publicly apparent for the first time during the Yalta Conference, a meeting held in the Crimean resort between the leaders of the Allied powers in February 1945, i.e. Stalin, Roosevelt and Winston S. Churchill, the prime minister of the United Kingdom. Although, it is debateable whether, any great or meaningful blueprints for the future of the post war world were actually arrived at during the course of the Crimean Conference, other than the three leaders formally re-affirming the Dumbarton Oaks agreement setting up of the United Nations. However, there were understandings, firstly that elections would be held in all liberated countries, additionally a rather nebulous declaration of self-determination for the said countries. What was not explicitally stated, but nonetheless implicitly understood by all parties was the notion of legitimate spheres of influence, along the lines agreed in the Churchill- Stalin summit in 1944. Had it not been realised before, Yalta it certainly became known during the conferences that each power in particular the Soviets put different interpretations on the notion of free and fair elections and inter alia democracy. This, notion would be physically shaped by events on the battlefield more than lines on a map drawn by political leaders. At Yalta Roosevelt and Churchill informed Stalin that a second front would definitely be launched against Hitler. In addition Churchill and Roosevelt sought to ensure that the agreements viz. free and fair elections would be applied with regard to Poland as it must be borne in mind that this was Britains original war ain in 1939 when it went to war after Hitler invaded Poland. Churchill in particular was aware of the historical enmity that existed between Poland and Russia: Stalin however assuaged Anglo- American concerns, and assured Britain and the US that the Soviet Union would allow free elections in all European countries liberated by t he Red Army The legacy of Yalta, is still the subject of contentious debate, particularly amongst the conservative section of the American body politic; however as was previously stated in terms of ascribing spheres of influence in reality this conference really only confirmed what was happening on the ground i.e. the Red Army had already liberated much of Eastern Europe and was poised for the invasion of the Third Reich proper in 1944/45. Whilst the Western Allies would soon put into effect Operation Overlord landing on the beaches of Normandy on their march, to destroy the Reich from the west; in addition to the push northwards through the now German occupied Italy, in the face of a tactically dogged and inspired German retreat, organised by Field Marshall Albert Kesselring. Thus, it would be difficult to see, short of immediately going to war with the Soviet Union or perhaps credibly threatening to do so, even if that had been either militarily or politically possible; what in reality the Bri tish or the Americans could have done differently. One interesting footnote to the Yalta Conference is that just two days after its conclusion the RAF and the USAAF, bombed the historic eastern German city of Dresden with horrific civilian casualties (around 25,000, although the precise figure was never known) and dubious strategic importance. By the time of the next Allied conference, held in Potsdam in Western Germany in August 1945, the scene had shifted dramatically. President Roosevelt, who had towered over American foreign and domestic policy had died and been replaced by the Vice- President Harry S. Trumann. Roosevelt had not involved Trumann in the field of foreign affairs quite deliberately. He therefore had to get himself up to speed immediately. Trumann was not as understanding of Soviet foibles as Roosevelt had shown him to be; nonetheless he was not, at this stage, anti Soviet. In the United Kingdom too, there was a change in leadership Clement Atlees Labour Government having won a sensational landslide victory in what was dubbed The Khaki election: replacing the wartime coalition led by Churchill (the actual changeover coming during the conference itself). Both Western leaders were suspicious of Stalins motives regarding his plans for Eastern Europe, in particular his approach to the promises made in Yalta in regard to free elections, where it seemed in both American and British minds, that Stalin just wanted the installation of puppet pro- Soviet regimes. The Soviet leader was perhaps somewhat perplexed at this change of attitude, as Stalin understood that he already had agreement on spheres of influence and he considered it a done deal. One factor, which obviously emboldened Trumann, was the knowledge that the US would drop the Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima six days after the end of this conference. The Americans did not officially inform Stalin, but in any event it is likely he was aware of the bomb from his spies (mainly within British Intelligence); nonetheless, it is debatable if Stalin actually understood the awesome power of nuclear weapons at that stage. As the records show Hiroshima was bombed on the 6th August 1945, followed 3 days later by an atomic attack against the Japanese city of Nagasaki. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union declared war on the Japanese on the 8th August 1945. The Japanese in the face of the twin threat from Atomic weapons and the Red Army surrendered on the 15th August. The wartime alliance now began to rapidly unravel as its whole raison detre i.e. the defeat of its wartime adversaries had been accomplished. There were meetings between the parties but little of substance was achieved, and more often than not these meetings would degenerate into accusatorial exchanges. There was no doubt that the power of the bomb was in many ways a show of American strength, to the Soviet Union, one that was noted accordingly. One, agreement of note should be mentioned which would assume great import in the coming years was the Agreement for the Soviets to accept the surrender of Japanese forces above the 38th Parrralel, and the Americans to assume control below this. The area of trade proved another source of disagreement, Roosevelts lend lease scheme that had been of enormous influence throughout the conflict. to all Allied nations, more or less came to an end on the ascension of Truman to the Presidency. In actual fact cargo ships destined for the Soviet Union were called back en- route. To add insult to already injured Soviet feelings was the loss of a Soviet application for US trade credits, somewhere within the Washington bureaucratic machine. The Soviet hunger for tax credits was satiated by the American talk of consultation representation on all matters relating to trade in Eastern Europe. In the same breadth the Americans sought to agree plans for repayment of Soviet lend lease debt. The question of American commercial and cultural hegemony would resonate in Europe in years to come, and not just with the Soviet Union. Perhaps the most important document to come out of this period was the so- called long telegram whose progenitor was George F. Kennan an America specialist on Soviet affairs. Keenans analysis of Soviet policy was widely disseminated within the US State Department and in time would hugely affect the policy of Trumans administration. In this telegram Kennan espouses the view that the Soviet view of the world is essentially akin to that held by the pre revolutionary Russians, dressed up with and made even more lethal by the addition of Marxism. Kennan advised toughness when dealing with the Soviet Union and essentially called for a US policy of containment of Soviet influence, as opposed to the view of Roosevelt, which sought to encourage the Soviet Union into a new liberal democratic order. However, at this stage Truman was not yet ready for a policy of containment, if not idealistic enough to take Roosevelts position he was still hoping for some kind of rapprochement with Stalin. Winston Churchill captured the mood of the times (15th March 1946) from an Anglo/ American perspective at any rate, when in a speech in Fulton, Missouri he declaimed to an audience that included a nodding President Truman that from Szczecin in the North to Trieste on the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended on the continent. Churchill also used this speech to call for an alliance of English speaking nations. Stalin was, not altogether unsurprisingly, alarmed at the thrust of Churchills rhetoric, as in Soviet eyes the target of this proposed alliance could only be the Soviet Union itself: and made his feelings public in an interview given to Pravda on the 13th March 1946. Stalin reiterated Soviet concerns viz. Anglo- American aggressive tendencies and equated the undertones of Churchills speech to the racist ones orated by Adolf Hitler. Stalin also pointed out that the Soviet Union had been invaded via neighbouring countries that were unsympathetic to the Soviet Union. Thus, it did not entail a massive leap in logic to surmise that one of Stalins primary aims was to ensure that all neighbouring states were at the very least pro- Moscow. Perhaps the single largest issue to emerge in the immediate post war years was the status of the defeated Germany. In 1946 Germany was administered by the four victorious allies i.e. the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and France (still, smarting over having been left out of the Great Power conferences). The German capital Berlin was similarly divided into four zones. At the outset neither side had any firm or concrete plans for the future of Germany apart from a desire for some form of reparations by the Soviet Union and on the Anglo/ American side a deep desire to avoid the re- creation of the mistake many believed had been made with The Treaty of Versailles i.e. being too punitive in relation to reparations and development in Germany These views although divergent to some degree, need not have been axiomatically opposed. Indeed, at this stage the idea of a united Germany was one that found favour in London. Moscow and Washington, with Paris being the only one to harbour doubts, mainly for internal political reasons. Truman, however increasingly frustrated at what he saw as Soviet obduracy and deception enunciated his feelings in what came to be known as the Trumann Doctrine in March 1947 before Congress in a debate on allocating funds to Greece and Turkey. Essentially this doctrine divided the world into free and enslaved/ enslaver peoples and committed the US to act in the defence of any so called free people being threatened by armed minorities or outside pressures. Stalin (correctly) saw that Truman meant communist when referring to armed minorities etc. He immediately reasoned the Truman Doctrine as a threat to Soviet interests and the Cold War was now off and running, in earnest. The announcement of the new US policy was actually precipitated by the relative decline of the UK in power and influence, and the ravages of the terrible winter of 1947 in Europe. At the time of Trumans speech the main purpose was to secure funds for the anti communist side in the Greek civil war. The UK had been pushed to the brink by the efforts required to sustain the Second World War; and was virtually bankrupt. Most European countries were in a similar if not worse position, if action was not taken to rectify the financial and economic situation as a matter of extreme urgency, it was soon apparent that Western Europe may not require the massed Red Army tanks in order to sharply turn to the left. The solution proposed by the US was at once remarkable and even viewed through the lens of over fifty years extremely generous, if not carried out for reasons of pure philanthropy. The US Secretary of State George Marshall proposed a plan, which would bear his name. The Marshall Plan was formally unveiled in a speech by Marshall at Harvard University on the 5th June 1947, in which a broad outline of an economic aid plan to Europe was outlined. A meeting was held in Paris to take the idea forward, at this stage the Soviet Union was seriously interested in the Marshall Plan. The thing that stuck in the throat of Stalin and his foreign minister Molotov was the idea of common planning and the notion of the Soviet economy being examined by British and American economists. The Soviet Union declined to take any further part in the Marshall Plan. The boundaries of capitalism and communism were now set and would remain so for the next 50 years. The Soviet rejection of the Marshall Plan could not have come as any shock in the West; indeed it may have been exactly what the Anglo- Americans for one were aiming for all along. Europe was now divided between the recipients of American largesse in the west and those countries by dint of their closeness to the Soviet Union who were unwilling, or perhaps unable to accept such American aid. In order to respond to recent events the Soviet Union convened the Communist Information Bureau, known as Cominform in Szklarska Poreba in Poland, which composed of representatives of the communist parties of the Soviet Union, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, France, Italy, and Yugoslavia.The Cominform launched an ideological attack on the Marshall Plan and the Trumann Doctrine. It however was at pains to point out that despite the ideological differences the Soviet Union was perfectly happy to co- exist with capitalism for an unidentifiably long period; after which orthodox Marxist theory predicted the collapse of capitalism due to one or other of the many in built tensions that existed within that system. The desire for both systems to co-exist did not preclude the enlistment of the French and Italian trades unions in an effort to derail the Marshall Plan. The strikes failed in large measure due to the arrival of American food aid in Western Europe. The US for the fist time began to run covert Central Intelligence Agency covert operations within Italy; in an attempt to ensure that the Italian Communists did not succeed in winning the Italian General election. This was done by a series of direct and indirect public pronouncements on the consequences for American aid in the event of a communist victory, together with what was to become the familiar pattern of CIA covert operations i.e. black propaganda, secret payments to non- communist political parties, and special training and equipment for the armed forces. Stalins reaction was characterised by its lack of insight and success in uniting the anti communist political forces in Western Europe. The failure of communist led strikes in Italy and France. In the increasingly heavy-handed approach to the political situation in Eastern Europe alienated many in the left in Europe. The situation in Czechoslovakia where firstly the Czech Foreign Minister had an unfortunate fall from his Foreign Ministry window: swiftly followed by a communist coup in that country severely undermined Soviet credibility in the minds of the Western public. A further crisis developed within the Cominform itself when Stalin tried to exert pressure on the Yugoslav Communist Party to expel its leader Marshall Tito. Tito however retained the confidence of the Yugoslav Communist Party, and far from being feeling himself by Stalins overtures actually began to negotiate for US aid, an act that resulted in Yugoslavias expulsion from the Cominform in 1948. The internecine squabble between Stalin and Tito, had the effect of reducing even further the goodwill of the public towards the Soviet Union within both the US and Europe. Stalin further raised the tension in Europe by paralysing the Allied Control Commission by withdrawing his representative Marshall Sokolovsky. The three other control powers proceeded to treat each of their occupation zones of Germany and of Berlin itself as effectively one unit. In addition plans had been laid for the introduction of the Deutschmark, which was duly introduced in the British, American and French sectors of Germany as well as in the zones controlled by theses three countries of Berlin on the 23rd June 1948. The Soviet response was to immediately begin a blockade of Berlin. For the first time since the cessation of hostilities their existed the very real fear that war could break out. In order to beat the Soviet blockade the Western Allies decided to mount an airlift in order to supply food and other essentials to West Berlin. The Berlin Airlift lasted for eleven months and managed to supply adequate food and fuel for two million Berliners. Despite some calls for the forcing of a passage into West Berlin by tanks, cooler council prevailed .The Soviet rationale for the blockade was simply to prevent the Western Powers proceeding down the road with their plans for a separate West German state: whatever the Soviet intention it was once again based on misjudgement and a miscalculation, and succeeded only in pushing forward the establishment of a West German state. Realising eventually that the only choices open to him was to relent or face fighting a war against a US led alliance armed with nuclear weapons, Stalin abandoned the Berlin Blockade on the 11th May 1949. The consequence of this crisis was the establishment of the very thing Stalin had started the blockade to prevent i.e. the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany on the 20th of September 1949. Following, the rather predictable tit for tat response that was to become the trademark of the cold war, the creation of the German Democratic Republic was announced to the world on the 7th October 1949. The Berlin Blockade and the splitting of Germany succeeded in raising fears within Western Europe to such an extent that there was intense pressure for a formal alliance, which would tie the US into the defence of Western Europe. As a result the North Atlantic Treaty organisation came into being in 1949. The division of Europe was now formalised, and complete along ideological lines. The focus of attention would now turn east, where Mao Tse Tungs communists were in the process of achieving the final defeat of the nationalist Kuomintang forces under Chiang Kai- shek. Conservative opinion in the United States was outraged at this development; accusing Trumanns administration of selling out American interests in the region and failing to provide adequate support to the Kuomintang forces in the Chinese Civil War. This was to be a running sore in the side of the right in America, who viewed it as the sign of communist aggression worldwide. It would act as the impetus for the McCarthy Period, so called because of the committee called The House Committee on Un- American Activities, which would be headlined by Senator Joseph McCarthys purges on alleged communists. McCarthy aided and abetted by future President Nixon unleashed a series of show trials which uncannily mirrored those of Stalin in the 1930s, albeit with considerably less gruesome results Nonetheless, the hearings of this committee changed the atmosphere in the US to such an extent that political liberals, trades unionists and effectively anyone who dared challenge McCarthys orthodoxy was subject to harassment, intimidation and exclusion from employment. The atmosphere endangered by Nixon and McCarthy would help to polarise opinion in America during the late 1940s and well into the 1950s. Against, this backdrop the forces of North Korea backed by Moscow, albeit with some reluctance crossed the 38th Parallel, to invade the western backed South. The attack was repulsed and the forces under the command of wartime hero Douglas Macarthur, after a series of battles advanced towards the Yalu River and Koreas border with China. Seeing this as a provocation China became involved in the war. This brought the world once more to the brink of nuclear conflict, as Macarthur rather injudiciously ruminated about the possibility of using nuclear weapons against China. Fortunately, Trumann declined; the war eventually ending in stalemate with both sides having to be content with the pre-war boundary of the 38th Parallel. The start of the Korean War signalled the end of the development of the cold war, and ushered in the political conditions that would shape the map of the world for the next fifty years nearly. However was the Cold War the inevitable outcome of the situation that arose at the end of World War Two? What is obvious from studying the records of the period is that neither side considered war inevitable, far less desirable. Instead the emergence of the Cold War owed more to serendipity than careful planning and desire by either side. The Cold War began in Europe, as that was where both sides met each other over the ruins of the Third Reich. The Americans with some initial distaste took up where her enfeebled Western Allies left off in South East Asia and the Pacific. The Soviet Union by dint of its support for Marxist regimes found itself being dragged along on the coattails of Maos revolutionary China. Once underway the cold war developed a momentum of its own and its logic embedded itself in the mindset of policymakers in Washington and Moscow. At every turn either superpower would see the nefarious hand of the other behind every event: more often than not erroneously. It is tempting to imagine what the outcome would have been had President Roosevelt not died in 1945. In order to avoid the Cold War the situation needed thought that was imaginative and could see things in a way that was novel. Unfortunately for the world no one emerged in either side of the Iron Curtain with the necessary breadth of vision. Stalin was undeniably a tyrant, and it would have been unlikely that a Soviet Union led by him would have been able to reach a long-term rapprochement with the West. However, the great mistake made by the West was in assuming that the monolithic state espoused by Stalin was truly representative of the Communist Part of the Soviet Union. Indeed Stalin was unique and by tarring his sucessors with the same brush the West was unable to change its perception when a new and potentially more accomadating power took charge in the Kremlin. The Soviet Union for its part made error of judgement so vast as to be inexcusable. Perhaps the greatest of which was its failure to join the Marshall Plan. That and the desire to supplant any form of independent government in Eater Europe, proved in the long term to harbour the seeds of the systems eventual destruction. If more thoughtful council had prevailed, on both sides then perhaps the next fifty years could have been entirely changed. Instead the only real winners of the cold war were the industrial- military complexes as Eisenhower was to term it on both sides, although in the long term only that of the West proved to have the longevity to be called by some the winner.

Jung and Freud’s Theory of the Unconscious Essay Example for Free

Jung and Freud’s Theory of the Unconscious Essay Jungs theory of the unconscious sprang from the influence of disassociationist psychology, whereby ideas and images tend to combine into complexes that represent a measure of ones personality. Thus, in his 1902 work, Jung theorized that the phenomenon called somnambulism might be an attempt of a future personality to break through. In 1935, Jung posited the existence of the collective unconscious, which represents complexes that exist apart from peoples intentions (Astor, 2002). Freud placed too much emphasis on the aspects of sexual and aggressive drives in his theory of the unconscious (Anzieu, 1986). On the other hand, Jung believed that the human unconscious is motivated by higher drives than these two, such as an inherent desire to seek self-development and religious fulfillment. Moreover, Jung deviated from Freud’s theory of the unconscious by positing that each person has a unique unconscious and that such unconscious may be accessed by a person voluntarily (Anzieu, 1986). Moreover, Jung carried his theory of the unconscious further by theorizing about the collective unconscious, which is composed of a universal set of ideas that belong to the entire human race, which passed from one generation to the next. Thus, Jung believed that a person’s personality is not only influenced by personal factors, but also by cultural influences that help build his personality (The New York Association for Analytical Psychology, 2008). Freud would have treated Mary Jones through his process called psychoanalysis, or simply, the talking-cure. Freud believed that the psychological problems that appear to underlie Mary Jones manifestations could be solved by talking about them. Psychoanalysis consists in the patients narration of his thoughts and feelings to the therapist. Meanwhile, the therapist is supposed to listen carefully to the client, and from the clients narration formulate his analysis and help the client achieve some insight into the unresolved conflicts of the client, which are only embedded in the unconscious (Anzieu, 1986). On the other hand, since Jungian analysis aims to form a strong relationship between the conscious and the unconscious, Jung would not confine the process to a mere discussion of the patients thoughts and feelings. Jung believed that the unconscious is a wellspring of psychic energy and healing; thus, he would utilize images and symbols designed to spontaneously unlock the patients fantasies and dreams. These images help in the exploration of new possibilities and achievement of personal transformation (The New York Association for Analytical Psychology, 2008). Jung places more emphasis n the process that occurs during the therapy sessions, rather than the content of the therapy. Jungian analysis aims to help the patient achieve an understanding and awareness of the unconscious and thereby give relief to the patients symptoms (The New York Association for Analytical Psychology, 2008). The differences in the treatment styles of Jung and Freud illustrate the following differences in their views of the unconscious:

Radiographic Quality of Root Canal Treatments

Radiographic Quality of Root Canal Treatments Title: Radiographic quality of root canal treatments performed by undergraduate dental students Authors: Masoud Saatchi1, Golshan Mohammadi2, Armita Vali Sichani3 Dental Research Center, Department of Endodontics, School of Dentistry, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences. Isfahan, Iran. School of Dentistry, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences. Isfahan, Iran. Department of Endodontics, School of Dentistry, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences. Isfahan, Iran. Summary: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the quality of root canal treatments performed by students of Isfahan University School of Dentistry between 2013 and 2015. Periapical radiographs from 784 root treated teeth including 1674 root canals were randomly selected and evaluated in terms of quality of root fillings (length and density of root fillings) and procedural errors (ledge, foramen perforation, root perforation, and fractured instrument). Descriptive statistics and chi square test were used for evaluation of the data (P Key words: dentistry, procedural errors, radiography, root canal treatment, undergraduate student Introduction Root canal treatment (RCT) is an important part of comprehensive dental care (1). High prevalence of apical periodontitis in endodontically treated teeth, as reported by epidemiological studies (2-4), reveals that outcome of RCT in many populations is poor, which as a health care problem can elicit medical, economical and ethical consequences (1). Outcome of primary endodontic treatment is reported to be associated with many factors (5). One of these factors is technical quality of RCT that is usually evaluated using radiographic method (3, 6). Its shown that the length of the root filling, relative to the radiographic apex, significantly affects the treatment outcomes (7). In addition, root fillings with an adequate density are strongly associated with a lower risk of periapical disease (8). Also, procedural errors such as ledges, zip and elbow formations, fractured instruments and perforations may accrue during the RCT. These errors may result in compromised cleaning and shaping, leakage through root filling or infection of the periradicular tissues and can jeopardize the endodontic outcomes (9). Recent studies accomplished in various population groups, show that undesirable quality is a common finding in RCTs performed by dentists and undergraduate dental students (Table 1). Therefore a worldwide enhancement in the quality of RCT is required (2) that could be achieved by means of education. Studies concerning quality of RCT are needed in order to appraise the efficiency of dental training, highlight the weaknesses and help with the planning for dental education. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate quality of root canal treatments (quality of root fillings and incidence of procedural errors) performed by students of Isfahan University School of Dentistry between 2013 and 2015. Materials and methods In this cross-sectional study, a random sample of 1200 cases were selected from the records of patients who had received RCT by undergraduate students at School of Dentistry, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Iran, during 2013-2015. Records with missing or unreadable radiographs due to improper imaging or processing technique, or those with radiographs that didnt show the entire length of the root canals and 2mm of periapical area, were excluded. Finally, 784 treated teeth including 1674 canals were evaluated. The RCTs were accomplished by fourth, fifth and sixth year undergraduate dental students according to the fallowing protocol: after taking medical and dental history and diagnosis of palp and periapical disease, local anesthesia was injected and the access cavity was prepared. An aseptic technique with rubber dam isolation was applied and working length was determined using periapical radiographs. Canals were prepared using step back technique by means of stainless steel k-files of 0.02 taper (Dentsply, Tusla, USA or Mani, Tochigi, Japan). In some case Gates-Glidden drills (Mani, Tochigi, Japan) were used for preparation of coronal third of the canals. Canals were irrigated by 2.5% sodium hypochlorite. Obturations were carried out using lateral compaction technique with gutta-percha cones (Ariadent, Tehran, Iran) and a ZOE based sealer. Teeth were temporarily restored and referred for permanent restorations. For root canal treatment of each tooth, 4 periapical radiographs (preoperati ve, working length determination, master cone and postoperative) were taken by the bisecting-angle method using De Gotzen dental radiography machine (De Gotzen, Roma, Italy) and E speed size 2 intraoral films (Primax, Berlin, Germany). Developing solutions (Champion, Tehran, Iran) were used to possess the radiographs in a time-temperature technique. Endodontist academic stuff supervised all the treatment steps. Average academic stuff: student ratio has been 1: 6 at the time of the study. In order to evaluate the quality of each RCT, at least 3 radiographs including preoperative, working length determination and postoperative, were examined. Evaluations were made in a dark room under even illumination and 3x magnification. Radiographs were mounted in a cardboard slit to exclude the extraneous lights. Measurements were done using a transparent ruler of 0.5 mm accuracy. In cases that the radiographic images were taken with an alternation in horizontal angulation, it was supposed that they were exposed with a mesial angulation. Two individual investigators (GM and AV) securitized the radiographs of each record. The results were compared and in case of disagreement a third investigator (MS) was asked to examine the records, and a final agreement was achieved. Before the study, investigators were calibrated and Inter-examination agreement was determined by evaluating 30 radiographic records that werent included in the study. For establishing intra-examiner agreement, each investigator re-evaluated the same radiographs after 2 weeks. Evaluation of quality of RCTs was accomplished by examining radiographic quality of root fillings and detection of the procedural errors. Root canal was considered as the unit of evaluation. Quality of root filling in each canal was categorized as acceptable and unacceptable based on the following criteria: Acceptable root filling: root filling ending 0-2 mm from radiographic apex without any visible voids in the filling mass or between the filling mass and root canal walls. Unacceptable root filling: Overfilling: root filling that extends beyond radiographic apex. Undrefilling: root filling ending shorter than 2 mm from the radiographic apex. Inadequate density: root fillings with visible voids in the filling mass or between the filling mass and root canal walls. The criteria for the detection of procedural errors in this study, were as follows: A ledge was identified if the root filling in the final radiograph did not follow the curvature of the main canal path in working-length radiograph. Root perforations (including furcation perforation, strip perforation and lateral perforations of the root) were detected when extrusion of the filling materials was identified in any area of the root except the apical foramen. Foramen perforation was diagnosed when the apical termination of the filled canal appeared as an elliptical shape transported to the outer wall. Fractured instruments: was detected by observing a part of instrument in the root canal or in periarticular area in the final radiograph. Statistical analysis Data were analyzed using SPSS software version 21 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). Descriptive analyzes were used for expressing frequency of radiographic criteria of quality of RCTs. Pearsons chi square test was used to compare the results among tooth types and locations and also academic year of students. P-values Results From 1200 collected records of endodontically treated teeth, 416 cases (34.7%) were excluded and 734 teeth including 1674 root canals were evaluated. 52% of treated root canals were in maxilla and 48% were in mandible. Canals of molar teeth comprised the most frequent treated root canals (68%), followed by canals of premolars (22%) and anterior teeth (10%) . 6th   year students performed RCTs on 49% of root canals. 5th and 4th year students treated 32% and 19% of root canals, respectively. Anterior teeth and premolars constituted the teeth treated by 4th year students while 5th and 6th year students treated premolars and molars (Table 2). Technical quality of root fillings According to length and density, acceptable fillings was found in 54.1% of root canals. From treated maxillary root canals, 56.2% and from treated mandibular root canals, 51.9% were acceptable. Rate of acceptable root fillings wasnt significantly different between the two arches (P=0.072). Among tooth types, canals of molar teeth exhibited lower ratio of acceptable root fillings (51.3%) compared to premolars (61.3%) (P=0.001). Rate of acceptable fillings in anterior teeth (57.7%) wasnt significantly different from molars (P=0.430) and premolars (P=0.128). Inadequate density, overfilling and underfilling was found in 34.6%, 11% and 8.3% of root canals, respectively. In both arches inadequate density consisted the most common cause for unacceptable fillings. In maxilla overfilling consisted the second frequent cause for unacceptable fillings, followed by under filling, However, underfilling was the second common cause of unacceptable fillings in mandible and overfilling was the least f requent cause (Table 3). From the root canals treated by 5th year students 46.1% had acceptable fillings which is significantly lower than canals treated by 4th year students (55.6%) (P=0.007) and 6th year students (58.8%) (Pth and 6th year students (P=0.339) (Table 4). Procedural errors: Procedural errors were found in 18.6% of root treated canals. Incidence of procedural errors between 5th year students (22.2%) and 6th year students (19%) wasnt significantly different (P=0.149). Students of 4th year had created less procedural errors (11.6%) than students of 5th year (Pth year (P=0.003). Ledge was the most frequent procedural error and was identified in 12.5% of root treated canals. Foramen perforation, root perforation and fractured instrument were detected in 2%, 2.4% and 2% of canals, respectively (Table 5). Incidence of procedural errors wasnt significantly different in canals of anterior teeth (12.3%) and premolars (9.5%) (P=0.341). These errors were significantly more frequent in canals of molars (22.5%) than anterior teeth (P=0.003) and premolars (P The k-value for inter-examiner agreement was 0.87 for detection of acceptable root fillings and 0.81 for identification of RCTs without procedural errors. For intra-examiner agreement k-values for detection of acceptable root fillings and identification of RCTs without procedural errors were 0.93 and 0.87 for first and 0.84 and 0.81 for second investigator, respectively. Discussion This study was designed to evaluate the quality of root canal treatments accomplished by undergraduate dental students at School of Dentistry, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences. Periapical radiographs taken during the RCT procedures were used for this investigation. Root fillings were considered acceptable if terminated 0-2 mm from radiographic apex and had no voids. This criteria is extensively documented to be associated with improved periapical health (4, 5, 8). In order to limit inter-examiner and intra-examiner erraticism, the radiographic criteria were strictly defined and two investigators were calibrated before the study. Its reported that great variations could exist between investigators regarding assessment of technical quality of RCT (22). In the present study, the k-value of 0.87 for detection of acceptable root fillings and 0.81 for identification of RCTs without procedural errors, exhibit good agreement between the investigators. Also values for intra-examiner agreement were found to be greater than 0.81, which shows reliability of each investigator. Acceptable root fillings according to length and density was found in 54.1% of investigated canals. Comparing this result to the findings of others is rather difficult due to differences in level of practitioners (undergraduate students, general practitioners, and endodontists), techniques and materials used for preparation and obturation of the canal and also evaluation criteria used to assess the quality of RCT. For example, in the study of Bierenkrant et al. (18) who investigated root canals treated by endodontists, 91% of root fillings had adequate quality which is greater than the present study and other studies investigating quality of RCT performed by undergraduate students and general practitioners (Table 2). Among the studies concerning quality of RCT performed by undergraduate students, frequency of acceptable fillings in the current study is comparable to the findings of Eleftheriadis Lambrianidis (14) (55.3%) and Khabbaz et al. (19) (54.8%). In the study of Er et al. (15 ), 33% of root fillings were acceptable which is less than the present study; thought, they used different evaluation criteria. Lynch and Burke (16) reported adequate fillings in 63% of RCTs, which is higher than the present study, however they only evaluated single rooted teeth. In the present study, inadequate density was the most common cause for unqualified root fillings. This is consistent with the findings of Balto et al. (20). Its believed that lateral condensation technique with gutta percha, could create voids in canals with insufficient flaring (14). No significant difference was found between quality of maxillary and mandibular root fillings. Also adequate root fillings in molars were less than premolars. This result was consistent with findings of Er et al. (15) and Khabbaz et al. (19) who report a lower quality of root fillings in molar teeth. This could be explained by posterior position and complex anatomy of these teeth. Students of 5th year had performed more unacceptable root fillings than 4th and 6th year students. This could be explained considering the fact that at Isfahan University School of Dentistry, first clinical encounter of undergraduate students with molar teeth, is at their 5th year of study. Iatrogenic errors were detected in 18.6% of root canals. These errors are more frequent in molar teeth. Balto et al. (20) and Khabbaz et al. (19) also reported a high prevalence procedural errors in molar teeth. The reason for this, could be explained by curved and narrow canals of molar teeth, which makes them challenging for undergraduate students. Furthermore, 5th and 6th year students had created more procedural errors than 4th year students. This is because 4th year students only perform RCTs on anterior teeth and premolars which are less challenging than molar teeth. In this study, ledge was found to be the most frequent procedural error and was detected in 12.5% of root canals. This finding is similar to incidence of ledged root canals in the study of Khabbaz et al. (19) and is less than study of Eleftheriadis Lambrianidis (14). Its shown that stainless steel hand files used by unexperienced undergraduate students could increase the incidence of ledge and other procedural errors (14). Radiographic images cannot illustrate all iatrogenic errors. For instance, over instrumentation which drives pulpal fragments and microorganisms beyond the apex into the periapical tissues, can only be radiographically diagnosed when it is followed by extrusion of filling material from the apex. The use of bisecting-angle technique for taking periapical radiographs, results in less accuracy in recognition of canal length, comparing to the parallel technique (23). It has also been shown that using only one orthoradial radiographic image for assessing the adaptation of the filling material to the root canal walls, isnt reliable. This adaptation has to be further investigated with at least one extra radiography of distal or mesial angulation in order to obtain more realistic estimate of density of root filling (24). Although radiographic quality of RCT is a significant determinant in predicting outcomes of primary endodontic treatment, the radiographic images can not reflect the general quality of treatment. Application of the antiseptic and aseptic techniques, material used and microbial circumstance of the canal are the predicting factors which are not investigated in radiographic studies. At Isfahan University School of Dentistry, Step-back preparation and cold lateral condensation techniques are being taught to the undergraduate dental student. Most universities teach these standard techniques to their students. Its shown that using rotary Ni-Ti instruments provide better canal shaping, reduce the procedural errors and are being taught in undergraduate curriculum in some dental schools (17). In many studied insufficient time allocated to clinical and preclinical training, the academic stuff: student ratio and evaluation methods are stated as reasons for low quality of RCTs in university clinics (14, 19, 20). Isfahan University School of Dentistry uses endodontic specialists and 3rd year post graduate students as training stuff. Also academic curriculum have been recently revised to increase preclinical training. Nevertheless, enhancing the time allocated to clinical training and increasing stuff: student ratio could lead to improvements in quality of RCTs performed by undergraduate students. In conclusion, findings of this study shows that 54.1% of root fillings performed by undergraduate students of Isfahan University School of Dentistry were acceptable. Thus, there a necessity to revise the educational programs in Endodontics in order to improve quality of root canal treatments. References: 1.Boucher Y, Matossian L, Rilliard F, Machtou P. Radiographic evaluation of the prevalence and technical quality of root canal treatment in a French subpopulation. Int Endod J. 2002;35(3):229-38. 2.Asgary S, Shadman B, Ghalamkarpour Z, Shahravan A, Ghoddusi J, Bagherpour A, et al. Periapical Status and Quality of Root canal Fillings and Coronal Restorations in Iranian Population. Iran Endod J. 2010;5(2):74-82. 3.Moreno JO, Alves FR, Goncalves LS, Martinez AM, Rocas IN, Siqueira JF, Jr. Periradicular status and quality of root canal fillings and coronal restorations in an urban Colombian population. J Endod. 2013;39(5):600-4. 4.Pak JG, Fayazi S, White SN. Prevalence of periapical radiolucency and root canal treatment: a systematic review of cross-sectional studies. J Endod. 2012;38(9):1170-6. 5.Ng YL, Mann V, Rahbaran S, Lewsey J, Gulabivala K. Outcome of primary root canal treatment: systematic review of the literature-Part 2. Influence of clinical factors. Int Endod J. 2008;41(1):6-31. 6.Craveiro MA, Fontana CE, de Martin AS, Bueno CE. Influence of coronal restoration and root canal filling quality on periapical status: clinical and radiographic evaluation. J Endod. 2015;41(6):836-40. 7.Sjà ¶gren U, Hà ¤gglund B, Sundqvist G, Wing K. Factors affecting the long-term results of endodontic treatment. J Endod. 1990;16(10):498-504. 8.Chugal NM, Clive JM, Spangberg LS. Endodontic infection: some biologic and treatment factors associated with outcome. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2003;96(1):81-90. 9.Peters OA. Current challenges and concepts in the preparation of root canal systems: a review. J Endod. 2004;30(8):559-67. 10.Hayes SJ, Gibson M, Hammond M, Bryant ST, Dummer PM. An audit of root canal treatment performed by undergraduate students. Int Endod J. 2001;34(7):501-5. 11.Dugas NN, Lawrence HP, Teplitsky PE, Pharoah MJ, Friedman S. Periapical health and treatment quality assessment of root-filled teeth in two Canadian populations. Int Endod J. 2003;36(3):181-92. 12.Barrieshi-Nusair KM, Al-Omari MA, Al-Hiyasat AS. Radiographic technical quality of root canal treatment performed by dental students at the Dental Teaching Center in Jordan. J Dent. 2004;32(4):301-7. 13.Segura-Egea JJ, Jimenez-Pinzon A, Poyato-Ferrera M, Velasco-Ortega E, Rios-Santos JV. Periapical status and quality of root fillings and coronal restorations in an adult Spanish population. Int Endod J. 2004;37(8):525-30. 14.Eleftheriadis GI, Lambrianidis TP. Technical quality of root canal treatment and detection of iatrogenic errors in an undergraduate dental clinic. Int Endod J. 2005;38(10):725-34. 15.Er O, Sagsen B, Maden M, Cinar S, Kahraman Y. Radiographic technical quality of root fillings performed by dental students in Turkey. Int Endod J. 2006;39(11):867-72. 16.Lynch CD, Burke FM. Quality of root canal fillings performed by undergraduate dental students on single-rooted teeth. Eur J Dent Educ. 2006;10(2):67-72. 17.Moussaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Badran S, Roy B, Bessart du Parc A, Bruyant M, Lefevre B, Maurin J. Technical quality of root fillings performed by dental students at the dental teaching centre in Reims, France. Int Endod J. 2008;41(8):679-84. 18.Bierenkrant DE, Parashos P, Messer HH. The technical quality of nonsurgical root canal treatment performed by a selected cohort of Australian endodontists. Int Endod J. 2008;41(7):561-70. 19.Khabbaz MG, Protogerou E, Douka E. Radiographic quality of root fillings performed by undergraduate students. Int Endod J. 2010;43(6):499-508. 20.Balto H, Al Khalifah S, Al Mugairin S, Al Deeb M, Al-Madi E. Technical quality of root fillings performed by undergraduate students in Saudi Arabia. Int Endod J. 2010;43(4):292-300. 21.Yavari H, Samiei M, Shahi S, Borna Z, Abdollahi AA, Ghiasvand N, et al. Radiographic evaluation of root canal fillings accomplished by undergraduate dental students. Iran Endod J. 2015;10(2):127-30. 22.Lambrianidis T. Observer variations in radiographic evaluation of endodontic therapy. Endod Dent Traumatol. 1985;1(6):235-41. 23.Forsberg J. Estimation of the root filling length with the paralleling and bisecting-angle techniques performed by undergraduate students. Int Endod J. 1987;20(6):282-6. 24.Eckerbom M, Magnusson T. Evaluation of technical quality of endodontic treatmentreliability of intraoral radiographs. Endod Dent Traumatol. 1997;13(6):259-64.

Prostitution: The Uncontrollable Vice Essay -- essays research papers

â€Å"There are women who search for love, and there are those that search for money.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Today, the term woman simply denotes one’s sex. It does not define her character, morals and values, or even her profession. However, this was not always the case. At the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century, during the Progressive Era, there was a drive for reform. Various social problems became targets for investigation and intervention: child labour, juvenile delinquency, corruption in city government and police departments, and prostitution. These things were newly discovered social problems; the only differences during this period were the new assumptions, strategies, and expectations of a broad organization of activists. Progressive reform actively decided to take more of a role in regulating the social welfare of its citizens, and those private and public spheres of activity could not be disentangled. Prostitution was an issue that underscored the relationship between home life and street life, wages of ‘sin†™ and low wages of women workers, double sexual standards and transmission of venereal disease. The late nineteenth century response to prostitution revealed the competing ideologies within Progressive reform activity over social justice and social control. â€Å"Most attempts to ‘deal with’ prostitution have consisted almost exclusively of more or less vigorous attempts to suppress it altogether – by forcing the closing of brothels, and by increased police activities against individual prostitutes and against those individual places, such as taverns, where prostitutes frequently solicit.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This paper seeks to prove that the reformers were unable to stamp out prostitution during the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century for a variety of factors. First, I will look at why women in the late nineteenth, and early twentieth century became prostitutes. The gender differences between sex roles will be analyzed in relation to prostitution. Finally, the various failed attempts to abolish prostitution will be discussed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Legally [prostitution] is often defined as the hiring out of the body for sexual intercourse.† Some say that the exchange of money does not need to take place. Albert Ellis, one well-known sexol... ...e of the prostitutes as working women, featured films, books, and television and radio talk shows seem to seek to demystify prostitution, to strip away the glamour and sensationalism. These images represent a conscious attempt to reject the portrayal o prostitutes as outcast women, deviant actors, and criminal types prevalent in the popular literature and scientific journals of the last century and a half. These images of prostitution reveal a retreat from an era of social justice campaigns that sought through economic and social programs to remove the sources of prostitution. Bibliography Benjamin, Harry. Prostitution and Morality. (New York), The Julian Press, Inc., 1964.) Bullough, Vern L. The History of Prostitution. (New Hyde Park, New York, University Books Inc., 1964) Report of the Special committee on Pornography and Prostitution. Pornography and Prostitution in Canada. (Ottawa, Canada, Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1985.) Sion, Abraham A. Prostitution and the Law. (London, England, Western Printing Services Ltd., 1997.) Strange, Carolyn. Toronto’s Girl Problem: The Perils and Pleasures of the City, 1880-1930. (Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1995.)

Euthanasia Essay -- Philosophy, Immanuel Kant

Euthanasia is an action that result in the death of a person. There are four types of euthanasia, such as voluntary active euthanasia, nonvoluntary active euthanasia, voluntary passive euthanasia, and nonvoluntary passive euthanasia. Among the four types of euthanasia, voluntary active euthanasia or VAE is the most controversial ethical issue in the United States. It is the killing of a competent patient who decided to end his/her suffering by ending his/her life with the help of the physician. VAE is illegal in the Unites States; however, it is morally just. Voluntary active euthanasia is legitimately moral on the basis of Immanuel Kant’s human dignity, the utilitarian’s Greatest Happiness Principle, and James Rachel’s view of active euthanasia. According to Immanuel Kant, a person has dignity that makes him autonomous. Thus, the decision of the autonomous patient to die has intrinsic value. Because patients are rational agent, they are able to make their own decision based on reason. A rational patient will reason that if continued existence is full of suffering and no-hope for better well-being, therefore, the best option is to discontinue his/her life to save him/herself from that future condition. It is the patient’s approach to manage his/her own life. Dan W. Brock is right in his article â€Å"Voluntary Active Euthanasia† when he said that, â€Å"self-determination [or autonomy] has fundamental value†¦ [because]†¦ individual [can] control the manner, circumstances, and timing of their dying and death† (75). The dignity of the patient lies in their â€Å"capacity to direct their lives† (Brock 75). According to Stephen G. Potts, a patient might seek euthanasia for the benefits of other people (79). In his argument against VAE, the p... ...uffer. The voluntary active euthanasia is legitimately moral. It is morally right for a person to seek euthanasia because it is their freedom or autonomy to control their own lives. It ends the suffering of the patient without harming other people. Furthermore, it prevents the person to suffer by giving him/her lethal injection or medication that prevents a person to die slowly with pain. On the other hand, the arguments against euthanasia are not sound. A thorough assessment will protect patient who request euthanasia for the benefits of others. A patient who seek for euthanasia does not use him/herself as means, but as ends to respect his/her own humanity. Furthermore, God as a benevolent will not allow a person to suffer which endorse the purpose of euthanasia – to end suffering. Therefore, voluntary active euthanasia should be legalized in the United States. Euthanasia Essay -- Philosophy, Immanuel Kant Euthanasia is an action that result in the death of a person. There are four types of euthanasia, such as voluntary active euthanasia, nonvoluntary active euthanasia, voluntary passive euthanasia, and nonvoluntary passive euthanasia. Among the four types of euthanasia, voluntary active euthanasia or VAE is the most controversial ethical issue in the United States. It is the killing of a competent patient who decided to end his/her suffering by ending his/her life with the help of the physician. VAE is illegal in the Unites States; however, it is morally just. Voluntary active euthanasia is legitimately moral on the basis of Immanuel Kant’s human dignity, the utilitarian’s Greatest Happiness Principle, and James Rachel’s view of active euthanasia. According to Immanuel Kant, a person has dignity that makes him autonomous. Thus, the decision of the autonomous patient to die has intrinsic value. Because patients are rational agent, they are able to make their own decision based on reason. A rational patient will reason that if continued existence is full of suffering and no-hope for better well-being, therefore, the best option is to discontinue his/her life to save him/herself from that future condition. It is the patient’s approach to manage his/her own life. Dan W. Brock is right in his article â€Å"Voluntary Active Euthanasia† when he said that, â€Å"self-determination [or autonomy] has fundamental value†¦ [because]†¦ individual [can] control the manner, circumstances, and timing of their dying and death† (75). The dignity of the patient lies in their â€Å"capacity to direct their lives† (Brock 75). According to Stephen G. Potts, a patient might seek euthanasia for the benefits of other people (79). In his argument against VAE, the p... ...uffer. The voluntary active euthanasia is legitimately moral. It is morally right for a person to seek euthanasia because it is their freedom or autonomy to control their own lives. It ends the suffering of the patient without harming other people. Furthermore, it prevents the person to suffer by giving him/her lethal injection or medication that prevents a person to die slowly with pain. On the other hand, the arguments against euthanasia are not sound. A thorough assessment will protect patient who request euthanasia for the benefits of others. A patient who seek for euthanasia does not use him/herself as means, but as ends to respect his/her own humanity. Furthermore, God as a benevolent will not allow a person to suffer which endorse the purpose of euthanasia – to end suffering. Therefore, voluntary active euthanasia should be legalized in the United States.

Cause Effect Essay - The Causes of Teen Suicide :: Expository Cause Effect Essays Teenager

The purpose of this paper is to explain the causes of teen suicide. This paper will include statistics and some background information on suicide survivors. Also this report will discuss some warning signs of teen suicide. It is important to take the subject of suicide seriously. It doesn't seem right that a teenager, who has lived for such a short time, would choose to die, but those who can't get over their depression sometimes do. Teen suicide is the third leading cause of death for young people aged 15 to 24 and the fourth leading cause of death for persons between the ages of 10 and 14 and it seems to be on the rise. Only accidental deaths and homicide follow it. Some experts believe that many "accidental" deaths are actually suicides. According to a 1991 Center for Disease Control and Prevention study, 27% of high school students thought about suicide, 16% had a plan and 8% made an attempt. Suicide affects teens of all races and social standing. Boys commit suicide more often than girls do. It could be because it's easier to get the tools for suicide, boys usually use firearms and girls often use pills so since the gun is more deadly, boys complete suicide. Over the past 15 years, the rate among girls has scarcely changed, but the rate among boys has tripled. Also, the rate among non-white males, even though it's still lower than the white male rate, has been rising most quickly of all. Suicide remains the second leading cause of death among whites after accidents and the third among blacks after homicides and accidents. Teen suicide is now considered a national mental health problem. The main two causes for teen suicide is the mental disease of depression and family problems. 90% of teen suicide victims have at least one diagnosable, active psychiatric illness at the time of death, which is most often depression, substance abuse, or behavior disorders. Only 33-50% of victims was known by their doctors as having a mental illness at the time of their death, and only 15% were in treatment at the time of death. The pressures of modern life are greater these days and competition for good grades and college admission is difficult which are extra stresses on already unsure teens. Some even think it's because there is more violence in the media. Lack of parental interest may make them feel alone and anonymous.

The ideas of classical economists

Dry James Anagram Synopsis The purpose of this work is to examine and understand the main thoughts of prominent economists during the classical period, namely Adam Smith, Thomas Malthusian, David Richard, Jeremy Beneath and John Stuart Mill. It is also included the comparison of ideas between these masters and last but not least, the contributions of these Ideas In today's context.At the beginning, the background of the classical period Is provided to ensure that readers have a better understanding of the economist's ideas. Followed by that, each economists ideas will be discussed respectively, and the comparison will be made. The contributions of Adam Smith, David Richard and Thomas Malthusian will be discussed in the last part and conclusion would be drawn. Content Page No.Page number Introduction 4 2 Background 3 The Five Prominent Economists Adam Smith Thomas Malthusian David Richard Jeremy Beneath John Stuart Mill 5 6 7 Comparison of Ideas between the Five Economists 8 Contribut ions of Classical School in Contemporary 9 Conclusion 10 Bibliography 11 Appendices 12 Classical school started during the late 18th century, when Adam Smith published his independent field of study and set forth the development of modern economics. Their ideas such as division of labor and comparative advantages are still discusses and implied in today's world.The work of this paper is to examine the main thoughts of five leading economists of classical period, namely Adam Smith, Thomas Malthusian, David Richard, Jeremy Beneath and John Mill and to compare their thoughts and concepts. Also, the relevance of contributions of their ideas in today's context will be discussed. Background Before classical period there was mercantilism period (1500 – 1776). During that time, manipulations and government intervention in the market is being practiced. Wealth of a nation is weighed in terms of gold and silver that a country possessed.Therefore international trade is discouraged by th e implementation of tariff, in order to prevent wealth flowing to other countries. However, as scientific revolution and industrial revolution take place, it helps to nurture the ideas of classicists. (Refer appendix 1 for influence of scientific revolution) There are a few main features in classical economics thoughts. Firstly, classical economists advocate free trade in rake. Without government intervention, the economy could self-adjust to achieve full employment. Secondly, each party, I. E. He merchants, workers and consumers will each seek self-benefit as it is in the human nature. Hence, harmony of interests will be achieved when the pursuit of self-interest will eventually leads to the best interest of the society. Thirdly, classicists consider all economic resources such as land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship as the nation's wealth and lastly, the classicists made a remarkable contribution to economics by explaining economic horses explicitly. Adam Smith (1723 – 1790) is often regarded as the father of modern political economy.In his life he had written two books, The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Moral Sentiments discussed the moral forces that restrain selfishness and bind people together in a workable society; Wealth of Nations assumed the existence of a Just society and showed how the individual is guided and limited by economic forces. (Bruce and Grant, 2007: p. 62) Adam Smith economic ideas are something of a novelty during his time. He introduced the idea of division of labor, which in today's word means specialization.By practicing division of labor, the productivity could be increased as (1) workers' skills are enhanced when they perform only one single task, (2) time for changing work task from one to another is saved, and (3) invention of machines could help increasing productivity once tasks have been simplified and made routine. (Bruce and Grant, 2007). Another i dea being pointed out by Smith is the harmony of interest. When all parties in a economy is seeking their self-interest, the natural order of the oral will eventually channel it to become social good.The key behind this complex mechanism is the concept of competition. Thus, Smith opposed government intervention in the market for the corruption and favoritism will leads to monopoly and competition will fail. This also implies in international trade. Smith thinks that have an advantage in and trades it with other countries. Although Smith is against government involvement in the economy, he did suggest a few roles that government could play in the economy. (Refer to appendix 2) When talk about value, Smith is of he opinion that measurement of value should be labor.The value of any commodity to a person, who possesses it, if he wishes to exchange it for other commodities, is equal to the quantity of labor which it enables him to purchase or command. Labor, therefore, is the real measur e of the exchangeable value of all commodities. (Bruce and Grant, 2007:p. 72) However, Smith did noticed that there are practical and theoretical difficulties in this theory. (Refer appendix 3 for further details) Thomas Malthusian (1766 – 1834) advanced the population theory in his publication An Essay on the Principle of Population.He states that population will increases at a geometric rate when unchecked while subsistence would only increases at best arithmetic rate. He suggested 2 types of checks, first is preventive checks which are those that reduce the birth rate and second, positive checks which are those that increase the death rate, to control population growth. Part of Malthusian ideas were adopted when the Poor Law Amendment of 1834 was passed. In his later work Principles of Political Economy, Malthusian came out with the theory of market gluts. He suggested that insufficient demand would occur due to inequality of distribution of income.Due to that, spending by landlords is important to prevent a glut of goods on the market which would turn into economic stagnation. (Bruce and Grant, 2007) David Richard (1772 – 1823) is a influential figure in the field of economics. He is hailed as the economists' economist for his extraordinary contributions in economics. The man who only had 14 years of formal education addressed economic matters academically. One of his main thoughts is the theory of free trade and from here derived the law of comparative costs, also known as law of comparative advantage.He explained that a person or country should produce goods which they can produce t a lower opportunity cost as compared to their competitors. In doing so, they would be more efficient and when traded with another country that practices the same theory, would achieve mutual benefit. Taking Turbot's concept of diminishing returns in agriculture, Richard used it to develop his theory of rent and introduced the law of diminishing returns. The law says that as the number of factor of production I. E. Labor increases, assuming sisters Paramus, the marginal product will at some point diminish.In the discussion of value, Richard said that a commodity must have use alee if it is to have exchange value. The use value of a commodity is derived from their scarcity and also the quantity of labor requires in obtaining it. Although utility is vital, it is not a measurement of exchange value. Time needed for producing the good and obtaining the raw material to produce the good is the exchange value for a commodity, according to Richard. The minimization of a person's pleasure, advanced the principle of utility.This notion is that people pursue things that provide pleasure and avoid things that produce pain; all individuals seek to maximize their total pleasure. Bruce and Grant, 2007:p. 122) Unlike hedonism, Beneath added the ethical doctrine into utilitarianism that human action should direct to the greatest happiness of the greatest nu mber of people. For that reason, Beneath was very active in social reforms. He supported free education for all, right for women, abolition of slavery and death penalty and many more. The major problem with Bantam's utility theory was that pleasure, a kind of emotion could not be quantify or measure.He tried to measure it using the Felicia Calculus, but he himself acknowledged the flaws in his calculation. John Stuart Mill who attended home schooling had his father, James Mill as his teacher. As a result, he got influenced by Bantam's thoughts of utilitarianism, as his father is a close friend to Jeremy Beneath. He further enhanced the utilitarianism concept, stating that enjoyment ought to be viewed in terms of not only quantity but also quality. (Anagram, 2012) His publication, Principles of Political Economy summarizes and fused all the economic knowledge up to his day.His discussed various issues from production to international trade. His most important and original contributio n is the law of international values. He implied the elasticity of demand for goods in his theory and successfully showed that the real exchange price takes into account not only the domestic costs, but also the elasticity of demand for each product abroad. Comparisons of Ideas between the Five Economists After reading the main thoughts of the five economists, we can see the evolution of economic thoughts in the timeline.The masters each have their own explanation on various topics, sometimes agreeing with each other and other times which they argued. From a bigger picture, we can depict that the ideas during the early period of lassie period varies from ideas of those in the end of classical period. For example, Adam Smith proposed laissez-fairer with minimal government involvement as the invisible hand in the market would eventually move the market to its equilibrium stage. However, Jeremy Beneath, who holds the idea of the greatest happiness for the largest number of people, thin ks that government should overlook the economy and social policy.In international trade issue, Adam Smith explained that export could remove surpluses in market but it could be done only when a country has absolute advantage in producing the particular goods. It was Richard then who argued that country could still benefit from trade even without absolute advantage. He introduced the theory of comparative costs, which is a situation when a country could produce certain goods with relative lower opportunity cost than the other country, and trades between them would still benefit each other.Mill supported Orchard's view of international trade, and further elaborated it by the law of international values. Mill said that the international price of trade is determined by the elasticity of demand of the product. Mill's theory is important as it overcome the economy. On the topic of value, Adam Smith placed his concern in value of exchange. He explained that the measurement of value should be labor and in exchanging commodities, both commodities should have equal quantity of labor to obtain it. As for Richard, he defined exchange value must have use value.The use value of a good is derived from its scarcity and also numbers of labor needed to obtain it. Richard then argued that exchange value of a good rely not only on the time used by labor to produce it, but also the time taken to obtain raw materials and capital goods which s used in the production process. In examining Thomas Malthusian ideas, the work of a very controversial man during his time, we could see that his works are favored by the wealthy landlords and on the other hand, pushed the lower classes – the poor people – into a deeper pit.In his population theory, he states that â€Å"population when unchecked increases geometrically, while subsistence increases at best arithmetically'. Therefore, to control the population growth there is preventive checks and positive checks. Richard, who is a close friend to Malthusian, argued that the theory s untrue and as a matter of fact, as years go by, the increment of food production is higher than increment of population growth. Contributions of the Classical School in Contemporary It is undeniable that the ideas of classical economists are a breakthrough in the mercantilism period and set forth the foundation of modern economic studies.Their works, being influenced by the scientific revolution, seeks experimental evidence to support and verify their ideas thus increase the credibility of their works. Below are three economists that made lasting contributions to the economic until today: 1 . Credited with the title father of modern political economy, Adam Smith indeed had made a huge impact in transformation of economy from mercantilism to free market. The most valuable idea that he leave for us would be the harmony of interest.The key behind the mechanism that brought all self-interest seeking behavior to become a social good, commonly also known as the invisible hand, is the concept of competition. It is because of competition that producers are restrained from making extra profit and hence drives down the price of goods. This theory is still recognized n today's economy. 2. David Richard Richard made a significant contribution with his theory of comparative advantage that served as a cornerstone in today's international trading policies.Although it was later refined by John Mill, nevertheless credits should still be given to this man. 3. Thomas Malthusian Despite being a controversial figure and his theories favor the upper class of the society, Thomas Malthusian still made some contributions to the contemporary economy. It was through his notions that the population growth issue is being concerned and later developed to be a formal study. It was his work regarding market gluts that later catches Keynes attention and expanded it. The classical school of thoughts indeed is an essential period in the his tory of the economical behavior of the society.